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Uprising of the Fools
Pilgrimage as Moral Protest in Contemporary India
by Vikash Singh
Published by: Stanford University Press
Series: South Asia in Motion
The Kanwar is India's largest annual religious pilgrimage. Millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganga and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Śiva shrines. These devotees—called bhola, gullible or fools, and seen as miscreants by many Indians—are mostly young, destitute men, who have been left behind in the globalizing economy. But for these young men, the ordeal of the pilgrimage is no foolish pursuit, but a means to master their anxieties and attest their good faith in unfavorable social conditions.
Vikash Singh walked with the pilgrims of the Kanwar procession, and with this book, he highlights how the procession offers a social space where participants can prove their talents, resolve, and moral worth. Working across social theory, phenomenology, Indian metaphysics, and psychoanalysis, Singh shows that the pilgrimage provides a place in which participants can simultaneously recreate and prepare for the poor, informal economy and inevitable social uncertainties. In identifying with Śiva, who is both Master of the World and yet a pathetic drunkard, participants demonstrate their own sovereignty and desirability despite their stigmatized status. Uprising of the Fools shows how religion today is not a retreat into tradition, but an alternative forum for recognition and resistance within a rampant global neoliberalism.
This chapter introduces the pilgrimage and the dominant scholarly perception of most contemporary religious actors as people unable to face the freedom and choices offered by modernity. Instead, the chapter argues that these young religious subjects are trying to master through practice and performance the norms, scarcity, and unpredictable outcomes of precarious, informal economic conditions at a critical point of transition into adulthood. It argues that representations of religion are often premised on an epistemology of domination that treats human beings as things, and in a teleological frame that knows no death. This chapter instead presents an orientation drawing on the finitude of being-in-the-world, and a psychoanalytically informed perception of human subjectivity and ethics, which operates as the analytical undercurrent of the book.
This is an ethnography of desperate household finances, participants' fears about the safety and health of their loved ones, affirmations of their moral sincerity and resolve, their desire to prove themselves, as well as tales of everyday humiliation and despondency. Weaving the empirical data with Weber's insights on the intersections between religion and economy, phenomenological theory, performance studies, and Indian metaphysical texts, it demonstrates how religious practice is a means of performing and preparing for an informal economy. The narrative places participants' performances, art works, ritual expressions, and the excessive labor of the journey in the context of their ordinary works (or lack thereof). Unlike exclusive formal institutions, which are increasingly governed by neoliberal rationalities, the religious event provides an open, freely accessible yet challenging stage for participants to practice and prove their resolve, gifts, and sincerity.
Scholars have often pictured religious participation as a kind of market exchange. But in the Kanwar, participants' express fears and anxieties regarding obligations for the life, health, well-being, and expectations of loved ones, expressly denying their interest in material gain. Analyzing such wishes, and the speech acts of the religious vow in the context of highly precarious living conditions and widespread suffering, this chapter looks at the role that ego deferral plays. Participants feel justified to ask for a divine gift only insofar as it can be seen as an obligation or gift to someone else. Engaging these concerns in reference to a customary ethic of care, and through conversations with Kant, Heidegger, Lacan, and Vedic texts, the chapter interrogates the dominant utilitarian notion of the "individual" to demonstrate a subjectivity that is from the outset relational and morally embedded.
This chapter analyzes the repetitive, obsessive, and mortifying character of the religious practices, showing how they manifest the dread of everyday life. I argue that there is a lack of representation of some of the most overwhelming experiences, fears, and desires of social and psychic life in dominant discourses of the nation, economy, celebrities, or individual merit. These forms of understanding suppress the concrete realities of life in the social margins, which instead are deferred, displaced to, and play out in religious practice. This analysis of participants' narratives focuses on personal historicity, and the profound lived time of the subject, as opposed to historical time with its focus on abstract collectivities, demonstrating the importance of an analytical approach which is alert to the continuities of religious, moral, and economic practices.
The chapter continues with ethnographic description of the author's journey, and corpses floating in the Ganga Canal while police officers turn a blind eye. Evoking the ubiquity of violence and apathy interspersed with moments from the exceptionally violent history of the region, it documents the tense moments where this "Hindu" procession passed through Muslim neighborhoods. Analyzing such episodes in relation to recent Hindu-Muslim conflicts, along with imaginaries of religious violence from India's medieval history, it shows that conflict over religion is usually provoked by interests of power and politics. Differences in faith take the form of actual violence only when stoked by statist actors seeking power. In a state where a politics of religion and identity has been systematically engineered through extensive organization, and where every political party tries to outwit the others in the diligent capitalization of differences, "religious conflicts" are inevitably the product of secular politics.
While the Kanwar obviously has a wide following, it is also frowned upon, and indeed reviled by a large sections of society. To mainstream ideals, these indiscriminate, carnivalesque performances, the low- brow culture of the Kanwar, present a poor, botched, illegitimate version of religion which lacks the composure of adult religiosity. In the context of a nationalist project, it comes across as offensive and uncanny, provoking disgust. While such aversion is partly an effect of postcolonial anxieties, national self-consciousness is itself driven by the uncertainties of a highly unequal and poor society. This aesthetic chasm is aggravated by India's caste heritage—a differentiation between the subtle and the gross, the pure and the abject, which is simultaneously aesthetic and metaphysical. The Kanwar thus enacts a conflict over habitus where sedimented hierarchies are overturned, and the stigmatized occupy the highways for several days, publicly performing its religious and sublime character.
Despite the complex social conflicts apparent here, religious practices such as the Kanwar are rarely treated in sociological scholarship as forms of "resistance." They are usually seen as substitutions for other, explicit social and political causes and interests. Anchored in an exegesis of rituals and enunciations in the Kanwar, this chapter advances an alternate understanding of resistance. I conceptualize resistance in hermeneutic terms, focusing on the temporality of being-in-the-world instead of an abstract teleological universal Good. Bringing the lessons of psychoanalytic practice with critical ethnography, this chapter argues that such re-articulation is indispensable for a radical epistemology that can make sense of new, global infrastructures of power and violence.
This chapter argues that an idiom of war dominates modern political consciousness. This leads into the characterization of religious subjects as calling for war, which in turn makes them legitimate targets of political warfare. There are fundamental misrecognitions—say in the vicissitudes of market fundamentalism, state terrorism, Cartesian Individualism— involved in such construction of the other as uncompromising bigots. Epistemologically, this is because of the apathetic treatment of the individual as just another entity, a thing, a commodity; a system of thought based on the cognitive, at the cost of material conditions. This chapter analyzes the discourse of Hindu nationalism and revisits the performative and moral significations of religion in reference to the realities of global neo-liberalism. Religion, its cries, ethic and order, are being called on here for existential meaning and predictability, the possibility of trust, community, and hope in circumstances otherwise bolstering a state of paranoia.
Vikash Singh is Assistant Professor of Sociology at Montclair State University.
"Reading through Uprising of the Fools is its own pilgrimage through parallel universes. There is Vikash Singh's ethnographic narrative of the North Indian Hindu pilgrimage, and, along the way, are Singh's own explorations of the meaning of the process. The book invites a double-vision: looking from inside and outside at the ways of knowing that, for all the apparent differences, link the pilgrim and the reader together. A remarkably original and subtle intellectual adventure." ~Paul Courtright, Emory University
"Uprising of the Fools is wonderfully—and disturbingly—rich with insights drawn from impressive ethnographic research. For anyone interested in theories of religious practice, performance, and pilgrimage, this is a must-read." ~Robert Wuthnow, Princeton University
"In this theoretically sophisticated, beautifully descriptive, and emotionally moving book, Vikash Singh gives us a compelling analysis of a contemporary religious pilgrimage. Uprising of the Fools is essential reading for ethnographers, cultural sociologists, scholars of religion, globalization theorists, and psychoanalytic thinkers alike." ~Thomas DeGloma, Hunter College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York
"In this perceptive and enlightening study of Haridwar's annual kanvariya festival, Vikash Singh conveys the struggles of north India's anonymous laboring men, and ultimately their strength and resilience. Readers with interests in religion, sociology, or politics will find it thought-provoking and valuable." ~James G. Lochtefeld, Carthage College
"Vikash Singh has written a richly detailed ethnography of a little-studied North Indian pilgrimage that draws from across Hindu sects. He offers a provocative argument about the forces driving the growth of popular Hindu rituals, to show how they are an increasingly important site of self-making and religious reform in India today." ~Arvind Rajagopal, New York University
"Vikash Singh's Uprising of the Fools is bound to become a classic in the contemporary study of religion and sociology, bringing this area to the forefront of modern theory again. Brilliantly pushing back against the presumption that religion has become secularized under neoliberalism, Singh provides vivid and extraordinarily well-written ethnographic evidence of how a difficult religious ritual in India—the pilgrimage—is enmeshed and inextricable from late capitalism's efforts to justify and sustain itself. This is a must read for anyone interested in social movements, religion, and social theory in or outside the academy." ~Lynn S. Chancer, Hunter College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York
"A provocative attempt to highlight and theorize popular religious practice for social scientists interested in the psyche, the state, and the economy....[T]his insightful book is an important contribution to an emerging critical project within the sociology of religion and would be useful for graduate seminars on theory, religion, culture, and even stratification." ~Gary J. Adler, Jr., American Journal of Sociology
"In this thematically poignant and evocative work, Vikash Singh provides an ethnography of the Kanwar, India's largest annual pilgrimage rite, alongside a running meditation on the place of religion in modern social theory and (continental) philosophy....The book is sure to prove engrossing." ~Faisal Chaudhry, H-Socialisms, H-Net Reviews
"One of the skilled techniques of the author is to render the examination of this ritual pilgrimage in layers. This sense of "unpeeling an onion" is a common theme in qualitative research. This, interestingly enough, is also one of the experiential modes of religious pilgrimage itself. In this way, the ethnography is like a pilgrimage into the reality and landscape of a group's religious experience, or the "sacred"....Uprising of the Fools will prove to be an important volume in the discussion of how ritual engages the body, the margins of sexuality, pain, ecstasy, and so forth....[It] offers a theoretically rigorous and experientially enchanting (Weberian allusion intended) study of ritual pilgrimage." ~Sarah L. MacMillen, <>Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews>
"Singh bounces back and forth between vivid descriptions of the pilgrimage and empathic accounts of the Kanwarias' everyday life struggles in a neoliberal economy. Challenging theories of secularism, modernisation, and religious fundamentalism, he thereby skilfully situates the pilgrims, the 'fools' as the term bholā and the resentment against the Kanwar suggests, in post-colonial capitalism....Uprising of the Fools is a rich ethnography of the Kanwar pilgrimage and offers a timely critical engagement with epistemologies surrounding religion." ~Eva Ambos, Asian Journal of Social Science